Brief History of Cryptography

Cryptography, the art and science of secure communication, has a long and fascinating history dating back thousands of years. Here's an overview of cryptography's key developments and milestones throughout history:

1. Ancient Cryptography:

- Ancient Egypt: Some of the earliest known examples of cryptography can be traced back to ancient Egypt around 1900 BCE. Hieroglyphics were used to substitute certain symbols with others to encrypt messages.

- Ancient Mesopotamia: The Mesopotamians developed simple substitution ciphers around 1500 BCE, where symbols were substituted for syllables or letters.

2. Classical Cryptography:

- Ancient Greece and Rome: The Greeks and Romans made significant contributions to cryptography. Julius Caesar used a simple substitution cipher known as the Caesar cipher, where letters in the plaintext were shifted a certain number of positions.

- Middle Ages: Various cryptographic methods emerged during the Middle Ages, such as transposition ciphers, which involved rearranging the order of letters in a message.

3. Renaissance and Enlightenment:

- Leon Battista Alberti: In the 15th century, Italian polymath Alberti invented the polyalphabetic cipher, known as the Alberti cipher. It used multiple cipher alphabets to encrypt different parts of the message.

- Blaise de Vigenère: In the 16th century, French diplomat Blaise de Vigenère introduced the Vigenère cipher, an improvement over Alberti's cipher. It used a repeating keyword to determine different cipher alphabets for encryption.

4. Modern Cryptography:

- The Enigma Machine: Developed in the early 20th century, the Enigma machine was a mechanical encryption device used by the German military during World War II. It used a combination of rotating disks and electrical connections to encrypt and decrypt messages.

- Development of Cryptanalysis: Cryptanalysis, the science of breaking codes, made significant advancements during World War II. British mathematician Alan Turing played a crucial role in breaking the Enigma cipher, which had a profound impact on the outcome of the war.

- Public Key Cryptography: In the 1970s, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman introduced the concept of public key cryptography, which allowed secure communication without the need for a shared secret key. This breakthrough revolutionized modern cryptography and enabled secure internet communication.

5. Modern Cryptographic Algorithms:

- Data Encryption Standard (DES): Developed in the 1970s, DES was a widely used symmetric encryption algorithm until it was replaced due to its small key size and vulnerability to attacks.

- Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): In the early 2000s, AES became the new standard symmetric encryption algorithm. It is widely used for securing sensitive information today.

- RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): RSA, developed by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman in 1977, is a widely used public key encryption algorithm. ECC is another public key cryptography approach that offers strong security with shorter key lengths.

These are just a few highlights from the rich history of cryptography. The field continues to evolve rapidly, with new cryptographic algorithms and techniques being developed to address the challenges of modern computing and communication.

American Revolution Technology

From 1775 to 1783, the American Revolution was a war fought between Great Britain and its thirteen North American colonies, eventually declaring themselves the independent United States of America. During this period, several technological advancements and innovations played a role in shaping the course and outcome of the conflict. Here are some key technical aspects of the American Revolution:

1. Firearms: Firearms played a crucial role in the American Revolution. Both sides used muskets and rifles, although the British army mainly used the standard Brown Bess musket. The American colonists utilized a variety of firearms, including rifles with greater accuracy and more extended range than muskets, giving them an advantage in certain types of combat.

2. Artillery: Cannon artillery was used extensively during the American Revolution. These cannons varied in size and range, from small field pieces to larger siege guns. The technology of cannons improved during this time, with advancements in design and production, leading to more effective use on the battlefield.

3. Gunpowder: Gunpowder was vital to firearms and artillery during the American Revolution. The production of gunpowder was crucial for both the British and American forces. The colonists had to rely on importing gunpowder from Europe and producing it domestically, often using makeshift factories to meet their needs.

4. Naval Warfare: Naval technology played a significant role in the American Revolution, particularly in naval battles and blockades. The American privateers and Continental Navy employed a variety of ships, including frigates, brigs, and schooners, to disrupt British supply lines and engage in naval combat. However, the American naval forces were relatively small and less technologically advanced compared to the British Royal Navy.

5. Communication: Communication technology during the American Revolution was relatively limited. The primary means of communication were messengers on horseback and written letters. Some innovative methods, such as signal flags and drums, were also employed for relaying messages over short distances on the battlefield.

6. Fortifications: The American Revolution saw the construction and use of various fortifications, including earthen redoubts, trenches, and wooden palisades. These defensive structures were intended to protect strategic locations and provide cover for troops. However, the technology of fortifications during this time was not as advanced as in later conflicts.

7. Medical Advances: While medical technology during the American Revolution was not highly advanced, there were some notable developments in battlefield medicine. Surgeons learned improved wound treatment techniques, such as amputations and managing infectious diseases. One significant figure in medical advancements during the war was Dr. Benjamin Rush, who advocated for better sanitation practices and vaccination against smallpox.

It's important to note that the American Revolution occurred during the late 18th century, so the technology of that time was considerably different from what we have today. However, these technological aspects played a crucial role in shaping the strategies, tactics, and outcomes of the American Revolution.

The First Semiconductor

The first semiconductor device is generally considered to be the point-contact diode, also known as the "cat's whisker" diode, invented by Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1899. This early semiconductor device was made using a semiconductor material (typically a mineral called galena) and a metal point contact. It allowed the flow of electric current in only one direction, making it a rudimentary rectifier.

However, the understanding and development of semiconductor technology progressed significantly in the mid-20th century. One of the key milestones was the invention of the transistor, a device that revolutionized electronics and paved the way for modern semiconductor technology.

The transistor was independently invented in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories. This invention marked the birth of the solid-state electronics era. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in many applications, offering smaller size, lower power consumption, and increased reliability.

Since then, semiconductor technology has continued to advance rapidly, leading to the development of various semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors, integrated circuits (ICs), microprocessors, and memory chips. These components are fundamental to modern electronics and have enabled the development of computers, smartphones, digital cameras, and countless other electronic devices we use today.

1518 Dancing Plague

The dancing plague of 1518 was strange in Strasbourg, which was then part of the Holy Roman Empire (now France). In the summer of 1518, Frau Troffea began dancing in the streets and continued for days without rest. Soon, more people joined her, and within a month, around 400 people were dancing uncontrollably in the city.

The dancers appeared trance-like, unable to stop themselves from moving, even when exhausted, injured, or in pain. Reports described them as sweating, convulsing, and sometimes even dying from exhaustion or heart attacks. The outbreak became a public spectacle, attracting curiosity and concern.

To address the situation, local authorities believed that a natural imbalance of bodily humor caused the dancing. They arranged for musicians and professional dancers to accompany the afflicted, hoping that more dancing would eventually tire them out and resolve the issue. Additionally, they opened up public spaces and organized special dance halls to contain the dancers and minimize the disruption to the city.

Medical professionals of the time also proposed various explanations, including ergotism, a condition caused by consuming rye bread contaminated with ergot fungus, which can induce hallucinations and muscle spasms. Other theories suggested mass hysteria, stress, or religious fervor as potential causes.

Eventually, the dancing plague subsided independently, decreasing the number of affected individuals. Over time, the incident was largely forgotten, but it remains a fascinating historical event and has been the subject of various theories and interpretations by scholars and researchers.

It's worth noting that the dancing plague of 1518 was not an isolated incident. Similar outbreaks of dancing mania occurred throughout Europe during the medieval and early modern periods, although none reached the scale and duration of the Strasbourg incident.

Antebellum Technology

Antebellum technology refers to the advancements and innovations in the United States before the American Civil War (1861-1865). During this period, the country experienced significant progress in various areas, including transportation, communication, manufacturing, and agriculture. Here are some notable technological developments from the antebellum era:

1. Steam Power: The steam engine was crucial in powering transportation and industrial machinery. Steam-powered locomotives revolutionized the railroad industry, enabling faster and more efficient transport of goods and people. Steamboats were also widely used for inland and coastal transportation.

2. Telegraph: The invention of the telegraph by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail in the 1830s revolutionized long-distance communication. Telegraph lines were established nationwide, allowing messages to be transmitted quickly over vast distances.

3. Industrial Machinery: The antebellum era saw the rise of industrialization in the United States. Factories were equipped with powered machinery, such as textile mills, which increased production efficiency and output.

4. Agricultural Innovations: The period witnessed advancements in farm technology and practices. Cyrus McCormick's mechanical reaper, patented in 1834, revolutionized the harvesting of crops. The cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, significantly improved cotton processing.

5. Photography: The development of photography during the antebellum era profoundly impacted visual documentation and communication. The daguerreotype, invented by Louis Daguerre in 1839, made it possible to capture images permanently.

6. Sewing Machines: The sewing machine, invented by Elias Howe in 1846, mechanized stitching fabric, transforming the textile and garment industries.

7. Transportation Infrastructure: The construction of canals and improving road systems, such as turnpikes, facilitated transportation and trade between regions. The Erie Canal, completed in 1825, connected the Great Lakes to the Hudson River, opening trade routes and contributing to economic growth.

These technological advancements in the antebellum era laid the foundation for further progress and industrialization in the United States. They helped shape the country's infrastructure, communication networks, and manufacturing capabilities, setting the stage for the rapid industrial growth that followed in the post-Civil War period.

What Made the Commodore 64 Popular?

The Commodore 64, released in 1982, became popular due to several key factors:

1. Affordability: The Commodore 64 was relatively affordable compared to other computers. It retailed for $595 at launch, which was considerably cheaper than many other home computers available at the time.

2. Hardware capabilities: The Commodore 64 offered impressive hardware capabilities for its price. It had a 1 MHz 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor, 64 kilobytes of RAM, and a custom graphics and sound chip called the VIC-II and SID, respectively. These features allowed for advanced graphics and sound capabilities, making the Commodore 64 stand out among its competitors.

3. Software library: The Commodore 64 had a vast library of games, educational software, productivity tools, and programming languages. It attracted both gamers and enthusiasts interested in programming and software development.

4. Compatibility: The Commodore 64 had a large user base, which meant developers and publishers were motivated to create software and games specifically for the system. This compatibility ensured a steady stream of new releases and a vibrant community around the computer.

5. Ease of use: The Commodore 64 had a user-friendly interface and BASIC programming language built into the system. This made it accessible to beginners and encouraged users to explore programming and create their software.

6. Marketing and distribution: Commodore International, the company behind the Commodore 64, had effective marketing strategies, including aggressive pricing and widespread distribution. They targeted a wide range of markets, from home users to schools and businesses, expanding the reach and popularity of the computer.

All these factors combined made the Commodore 64 a trendy and influential computer in the 1980s, with an estimated 17-20 million units sold worldwide. Its affordability, hardware capabilities, software library, and user-friendly interface contributed to its success and enduring legacy.

The TI-99/4A Computer

The TI-99/4A was a home computer released by Texas Instruments (TI) in 1981. It was an 8-bit computer that competed with other popular home computers of its time, such as the Commodore 64, Atari 800, and Apple II.

The TI-99/4A featured a 16-bit TMS9900 processor running at 3.0 MHz, which was relatively fast. It had 16 KB of RAM and 26 KB of ROM, which contained the computer's built-in operating system and BASIC interpreter.

One notable feature of the TI-99/4A was its sound and graphics capabilities. It had a dedicated sound chip that supported three-voice sound synthesis and could produce reasonably high-quality audio for its time. The computer also had a built-in graphics processor capable of displaying up to 16 colors simultaneously on-screen, with a screen resolution of 256x192 pixels.

The TI-99/4A had a cartridge slot that allowed users to expand its capabilities with additional software and hardware modules. It also had an external expansion port connecting peripherals such as disk drives, printers, and modems.

While the TI-99/4A had some technical strengths, it faced tough competition from other home computers and struggled to gain a significant market share. TI eventually discontinued the computer in 1984 due to poor sales.

Despite its relatively short lifespan, the TI-99/4A still has a dedicated community of enthusiasts and collectors today who continue to develop and preserve software for the system.

The Great Horse Epizootic of 1872: “Living Machines” and Technology

Introduction

The second industrial revolution (1870-1914) transformed the urban landscape of the United States.[1] This urbanization and subsequent migration of people across the United States required a massive investment in transportation. Although the railroad quickly transformed itself into the principal means of distance transportation by the 1870s, horses remained the primary means of transportation, distribution, and labor in all significant urban areas.[2] Many would view horses as a "living machine" to be used instead of technology.[3]  This reliance on horses permeated every aspect of the economy, and the subsequent overcrowding and overuse of horses created an environment conducive to spreading disease. In September 1872, as few as fourteen horses in Canada contracted symptoms of equine influenza.[4] Within fifty weeks, nearly every horse in all major cities across the United States suffered from equine influenza with a mortality rate of nearly five percent. This resulted in a near stoppage of transportation and distribution as well as deaths of people in at least one city due to the inability to transport heavy fire equipment during a major fire.[5]  The Great Epizootic of 1872, as it became known, receded and left urban planners facing the challenge of ensuring it would not happen again. Technological advances, although slow to catch on, eventually replaced horses as the primary means of transportation. Again, this was partially due to The Great Horse Epizootic of 1872.  

The Great Horse Epizootic of 1872:

“Living Machines” and Technology

By the 1870s, the horse was the "living machine." [6] This apex of the golden age of horses continued to grow and intertwine with the economy. Horses augmented human strength, productivity, and achievements in the late nineteenth century. Every aspect of the horse stimulated the economy in all facets of urban living. Horses pulled carts, worked in coal mines, were the primary means of public transportation, pulled heavy fire equipment, powered textile mills, and were the backbone of agricultural production. Coal, the primary energy source, relied on horses to transport from the mines and distribute them to cities. The significant developments in steam transportation on land and water increased the reliance on horses through the 1870s.[7] The economy of horses in the cities included leather shops, bridlers, horseshoe makers, fertilizer manufacturers, and streetcar makers. In addition, the large quantities of food to feed horses drove agriculture. In the 1870s, nearly three-fourths of Americans lived in rural areas, and the horse was the mainstay of this existence. The importance of the horse changed the landscape of urban streets. Streets were designed to maximize horses pulling streetcars. This included experimenting with different paving of streets to ensure horses could be more efficient. [8] Horses provided jobs for people in the urban environment and were a cheaper alternative power source for large businesses. For this reason, replacing the horse created an economic quagmire.[9]

Although horses helped build cities, and these cities were built around horses, the Epizootic of 1872 solidified the thought that horses, while indispensable, presented many problems and would remain only until better substitutes could be found.[10]  In the census of 1870, 7.1 million horses were counted. This is nearly one horse for every five people in America.[11] New York alone had as many as fourteen thousand horses working daily.[12]  Streetcars, the primary use of horses in New York, used the majority of these horses.[13]  Although directly tied to the economy, horses also created significant issues in the urban environment. 

In Georgia, the number of horses in the state was valued at over half a million dollars, and the glue industry related to horses was nearly 18 thousand per year. [14] Overworked horses that died were left in the streets. Horse manure piled up in the streets and contributed to the spread of disease. The overwork, overcrowding, and poor sanitation created the perfect environment for disease in people and animals. The horse created many problems for the city. This included noise, manure pollution, unsanitary conditions, and problems with the disposal of dead horses. Overworked horses that died would be left in the streets. In 1880, New York City removed 15,000 dead horses from the streets.[15] 

Equine influenza was not a new occurrence, but tracing the history of animal illness becomes more complex as earlier accounts of the disease are hard to identify as influenza.[16]  Horse influenza dates back to Hippocrates and Livius 330CE. Great Britain and the European Continent saw the appearance of horse influenza several times in the 1700s. [17] Highly contagious and having a rapid incubation period of one to three days, infected horses quickly become weak and have a high fever. The infection renders the horse unusable from two weeks to six months.[18]  During this time, the horse cannot work at the same level of efficiency, and without rest, the morbidity rate increases. The spread of the disease is so fast that great tracts of the country are overcome almost instantly. [19] The conditions of overwork and the proximity of horses in stables in the city created the perfect environment for horse influenza to spread. Also, the transportation and overcrowding of horses in rail cars to all major urban areas made the spread rapid across North America. This overcrowding of horses in the streets and overcrowding in stalls created some localized diseases such as spinal meningitis or pink eye during the early 1870s, but this remained localized.[20] In early 1872, equine influenza infected horses and could not be contained.

On November 30, 1872, fourteen horses in Toronto, Canada, showed signs of horse influenza. [21] According to a newspaper article from October 1872, readers started to become alarmed about the initial onset of the horse epidemic. Horse owners and business owners needed help understanding the magnitude of what was to occur in the next month. Rail lines and city transportation were already slowing down in New York. Locals feared all transportation and labor would end without being understood or controlled. [22] The city, already plagued with the daily deaths of horses and increased pollution from horse feces, failed to recognize how the impact would quickly overtake the economy and shut down transportation.

New York, unaware that the epidemic would continue, thought the worst of the disease was over by October 25. They reported no fatal cases. Streetcars were disrupted, but not enough to cause serious issues. [23] In Baltimore, the epidemic had disturbed businesses and halted shipments four days later. In addition, nearly one million bushels of grain were left undelivered due to the shortage of horses. [24] By November, 150 cars and stages were not operational in New York, with an estimated seven thousand horses infected. [25] Estimates show the infection rates for American horses at 80 to 99 percent. [26] Even as early as November 14, businesses began to see a slowdown in receiving and delivery in Louisville. [27]

As it became known, the horse epizootic continued to spread fast, and on November 4, the entire fire department of Boston was struggling to keep sick horses from healthy ones. With the horses down with the Epizootic, businesses were blocked, and the fire department was crippled. Then, on November 9, 1872, at 7:20 pm, the first alarms were sounded for a fire in the business district.[28] This fire increased public outrage and resulted in a reorganization of the fire department the following year. This restructuring led to many changes in how the fire department responded, as well as how the fire department cared for horses used in pulling heavy equipment. Fire engines, designed to be pulled by horses, needed to be faster in arriving as men had to pull them.[29] Steam alternatives were sought to replace horses in many fire departments.

The halt in transportation permeated every aspect of urban life. Street railways and stage lines stopped. Weddings and funerals were delayed due to the lack of horses for transportation.[30]  Doctors, reliant on horses for transportation, stopped house calls.[31]  Even mail delivery was suspended in some areas.[32]  The forges in Pittsburg could not get coal supplies and stopped operations. As a result, housing construction stopped while laborers remained idle.[33] During the Epizootic, cities began seeking alternatives to horses for transportation. Oxen were used but provided little relief. Goods were carried by hand or by wheelbarrow. Idle workers and even boys were used for pulling wagons. During the Epizootic, men were used for pulling streetcars.[34]

Major railways used to transport new horses into urban areas catalyzed the spread of the disease.   By January, citizens of Nevada were becoming alarmed by the Epizootic. The epizootic spread across the United States within fifty weeks, and even small towns were impacted. To prepare for the possible twenty to thirty-day transportation stoppage, Pioche suggested oxen should be used to transport water. The Mexican transport of wood from donkeys would not be affected. The advanced notice allowed grocery stores and mining companies to stockpile large goods before the disease. Even with oxen, one freighter of ore in Pioche lost twelve animals to horse influenza.[35]

An impact report, created in 1873, traced the spread of the disease and attempted to advise how to best impede any spread in the future. According to Dr. Judson, who compiled this history and impact report for public health in 1873, the Great Epizootic originated with a few Canadian horses in September 1872 and quickly spread across the Eastern seaboard. It then moved west through the transportation of horses over overcrowded rail lines. Several maps depicted the rapid spread. [36]  By the end of the Epizootic, all major urban areas directly impacted businesses and transportation. Although the direct cause of the spread of the disease was unknown at the time, most analytical research suggested that the proximity of horses in an urban environment and the use of horses for transportation aided in the rapid spread. The effects of influenza on commerce and the general welfare of the community are highly injurious.[37] One major issue was the overuse of horses, even after the disease started. Economic pressures made it almost impossible for horses to be given time to recoup. As a result, overworked horses continued to work through the Epizootic at the expense of fatigue and illness.[38]  A common misunderstanding at the time reported the cures for infected horses. Some cures involve complex remedies. The best remedy was warmth and comfort with a restrain for heavy labor.[39]

During the Epizootic, almost all significant cities reported severe economic distress from the epidemic, yet afterward, cities were still slow to embrace new technologies. Horses were kept as the primary means of labor and transportation overnight. Instead, they were replaced function by function. Cities, slow to react to The Great Epizootic, began looking to technology and medicine to eliminate the possibility of this occurring again. Although the horse competed with the steam engine at the time, the horse remained a constant source of power and transportation through the end of the century.

The use of electricity to power streetcars hastened the demise of the use of horses after 1888. Cities like Philadelphia outlawed steam-powered vehicles until the epizootic required a temporary lift on the ban during the crisis. Some cities began using the once-banned dummy engines, steam locomotives resembling railroad cars, as a relief.[40]

Although horses created pollution in the form of dung in the streets, people were leery of utilizing steam-powered vehicles due to the smoke and noise pollution. As a result, the use of electric and cable streetcars continued to increase in popularity and cost-effectiveness throughout the 1870s. The Great Epizootic eroded the position of the horse as the primary means of labor and transportation in the urban area. However, the process could have been faster due to the overwhelming cost of replacement with new technology.[41]  City councils that banned light steam engines before 1872 halted the bans temporarily during the Epizootic. The initial reason for the ban was probably due to the environmental impact they would have on existing systems. This changed after The Great Epizootic as Boston adopted steam engines and New York authorized light steam engines for thirty days. However, steam-powered alternatives to pull railway cars continued to be slow to catch on. 

The change from horsepower to mechanical power remained slow in the western portion of America. The early evolution of transportation in Los Angeles relied upon horses, mules, and donkeys until the gasoline motor and electricity overcame horsepower after mechanical innovations. Mechanical issues of the day slowed the progress of replacing horses. Electricity eventually took over horses as the primary means of streetcar operation.[42] Although steam-powered vehicles had advanced to a practical and cost-effective means of mechanical labor by the mid-1850s and some cities such as New York experimented with steam-powered vehicles in the 1860s, the horse remained the primary means of mechanical production and transportation in 1872.[43]  The first prominent steam-powered streetcar opened in 1860 and operated from Third and Market Streets to 16th and Valencia Streets. Although popular, it proved to be a financial failure by 1867 due to the cheap labor provided by horses.[44]

By the 1890s, the slow demise of the horse was hastened by new advances in electric streetcars. The Great Horse Epizootic spurred some entrepreneurs to look for alternatives, but the transportation cost eventually changed large businesses’ use of horses. In 1890, a report compared horse costs to electric streetcars. Horses cost .0372 per mile compared to .02371 for electric streetcars.[45] This is compared to the 1860s, when the steam engine cost 42 percent more per day than the use of horses. [46] The cost of horses decreased between the years 1868 to 1873 from $75.16 to $74.36. [47]

The populous began to look at the horse as a temporary means of labor. As the Epizootic receded, alternatives to horsepower were discussed in several large cities. People began to view the horse as too slow and fallible.[48] The fledgling A.S.P.CA.S.P.C.A. Took notice of the continued mistreatment of horses and created a campaign to replace horses. The goal of the organization sought to reduce the overworked and atrocious conditions surrounding horses as cheap labor. Also, changing attitudes toward the treatment of animals dramatically changed after the 1900s.[49]

Cheap and practical, the horse permeated all aspects of the economy and remained the mainstay of economic growth through the end of the second industrial revolution. For some, utilizing the horse for production was embedded in America's social and traditional culture. However, the rapid growth of the cities, combined with the power that large corporations had over the economy, limited the ability of competition and entrepreneurs. Removing the horse as the primary means of transportation meant changing many aspects of the urban environment and economy. This created an atmosphere where machines and inventions took precedence in the economy. The horse, an integral part of that economy, was slow to be replaced until large corporations took the lead in embracing new technology as the cost decreased.[50]  Replacing the horse took time and effort. Americans flirted with replacing horses, but steam engines failed to gain popularity. In addition, steam-powered transportation requires time to build up pressure. This is ineffective for rapidly transporting machinery such as heavy fire equipment. 

The Great Epizootic of 1872, even after shutting down transportation across North America, did not lead to an overnight technological revolution. It did, however, start the long process of understanding how horses could only partially sustain economic and industrial growth in the urban environment. Steam power competed with horsepower initially, and even during the Epizootic, people viewed horsepower as more cost-effective and efficient than steam power. As a result, horses maintained a "living machine" status until the advent of electric cable cars and gasoline engines that could compete in the economy.

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[6] Clay McShane and Joel A Tarr, The Horse in The City: Living Machines In The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: University Press, 2011).

[7] James McClure, "The Epizootic of 1872: Horses and Disease in A Nation In Motion", New York History 79, no. 1 (1998): 4-22.

[8] Clay McShane and Joel A Tarr, The Horse In The City: Living Machines In The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: University Press, 2011).

[9] Clay McShane and Joel A Tarr, The Horse In The City: Living Machines In The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: University Press, 2011).

[10] "The Horse in the Cities," New York Times, July 24, 1881, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[11] “Changes in the Horse Industry" ker.com, Kentucky Equine Research, last modified October 20, 2007, https://ker.com/equinews/changes-horse-industry/?highlight=%20Changes%20in%20the%20Horse%20Industry.

[12] James McClure, "The Epizootic of 1872: Horses And Disease In A Nation In Motion", New York History 79, no. 1 (1998): 4-22.

[13] "Frightful Horse Diseases in New York City," Knoxville Daily Chronicle, October 30, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/.

[14] Commissioner of Agriculture, "Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture" Washington: Government Printing Office, 1872.

[15] Sean Kheraj, "The Great Epizootic Of 1872–73: Networks of Animal Disease in North American Urban Environments", Environmental History 23, no. 3 (2018): 495-521, doi:10.1093/envhis/emy010.

[16] Morens, David M., and Jeffery K. Taubenberger. 2010. "Historical Thoughts on Influenza Viral Ecosystems, Behold A Pale Horse, Dead Dogs, Failing Fowl, and Sick Swine ."Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 4 (6): 327-337. doi:10.1111/j.1750-2659.2010.00148.x.

[17]A. B. Judson, “History and Course of the Epizoötic among Horses upon the North American Continent in 1872-73.” Public health papers and reports 1: 88–109.

[18] Bonnie Rush, "Equine Influenza - Respiratory System - Veterinary Manual," Veterinary Manual, Last modified 2019, https://www.merckvetmanual.com/respiratory-system/respiratory-diseases-of-horses/equine-influenza.

[19] “Epidemic Influenza,” The British Medical Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1510 (December 7, 1889), 1291.

[20] James McClure, "The Epizootic of 1872: Horses and Disease in s Nation in Motion", New York History 79, no. 1 (1998): 4-22.

[21] James Law, “Influenza in Horses," Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture 1872

[22] “The Eqno-Lalaria in Brooklyn, New Jersey, Newark, New York and Elsewhere,” New York Herald October 31, 1872, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[23] "The Horse Disease," Chicago Daily Tribune, October 25, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[24] "The Horse Disease," Chicago Daily Tribune, October 26, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[25] "Eastern News," Albany Register, November 1, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[26] John Kelly, "Why the Long Face? Because in 1872, Nearly Every Horse in Washington Got Very Ill." The Washington Post. W.P.W.P. Company, Last modified November 5, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com.

[27] “The Horse Plague,” Nashville Union and American, November 15, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[28] Arthur Brayley. A Complete History of the Boston Fire Department: Including the Fire-Alarm Service and the Protective Department, From 1639 to 1888. (Franklin Classics, 2018).

[29] Russell H. Conwell, History of the Great Fire in Boston, November 9 and 10, 1872, (Boston, B.B Russell), 48.

[30] "The Big Shift Last Time: From Horse Dung to Car Smog | The Tyee." Andrew Nikiforuk. The Tyee. https://thetyee.ca/News/2013/03/06/Horse-Dung-Big-Shift.

[31] James McClure, "The Epizootic of 1872: Horses and Disease in a Nation in Motion", New York History 79, no. 1 (1998): 4-22.

[32] New York Times, October 23-26, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[33] “Horse Influenza,” Boston Daily Evening Transcript, October 26, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[34] “Editorial,” Boston Daily Evening October 28, 1827. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[35] “The Epizootic is here,” Pioche Daily Record. January 31, 1873.  https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84022048/1873-01-31/ed-1/seq-3/

[36] Sean Kheraj, "The Great Epizootic Of 1872–73: Networks of Animal Disease in North American Urban Environments", Environmental History 23, no. 3 (2018): 495-521, doi:10.1093/envhis/emy010.

[37] A. B. Judson, “History and Course of the Epizoötic among Horses upon the North American Continent in 1872-73.” Public health papers and reports 1: 88–109.   

[38] "The Horse Plague: Fifteen Thousand Horses in this City Unfit for Use," New York Times, 1872. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

[39] John Dexter, “The Dumb Animals Friend;” Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 1894. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.35228.

[40] “The Disease in New Jersey,” New York Herald, November 1, 1872. 2. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/.

[41] Jeffery Flanagan, "On the Backs of Horses: The Great Epizootic of 1872". Graduate, College of William & Mary. 2011.

[42] Hadley Meares, "Old Photos Show the History of Transportation in L.A.L.A.," Curbed LA, Last modified 2019, https://la.curbed.com/2017/9/19/16268026/transportation-old-photos-history.

[43] Clay McShane and Joel A Tarr, The Horse In The City: Living Machines In The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: University Press, 2011).

[44] "Steam Streetcar on Market Street, 1864 | Market Street Railway", Market Street Railway, Last modified 2018, https://www.streetcar.org/steam-streetcar-on-market-street-1864/.

[45] Augustine Wright, American Street Railways: Their Construction, Equipment and Maintenance, Chicago 1888, 194.

[46] “Motive Power” Transactions of the American Institute, Proceedings of the Polytechnic Association 1860, 539.

[47] Commissioner of Agriculture, "Annual Reports of the Department Of Agriculture" Washington: Government Printing Office, 1872

[48] James McClure, "The Epizootic of 1872: Horses and Disease in a Nation in Motion", New York History 79, no. 1 (1998): 4-22.

[49] Nathaniel Wolloch. 2019. The Enlightenment's Animals: Changing Conceptions of Animals in the Long Eighteenth Century. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2019). doi:10.2307/j.ctvcj309p.

[50] Maury Klein. The Genesis of Industrial America, 1870-1920. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2007).

Jefferson Wheel

The ability to relay messages secretly has been a challenge throughout history. How can one person communicate secretly, efficiently, and across any distance without the information being discovered by someone other than the recipient? From the Greek scytale and the Roman Caesar Cipher, the technology of cryptography remained relatively the same until the late 17th century, when events in Europe and America required an updated message transmission method. 

Thomas Jefferson described his thirty-six cylindrical wheel cipher, a revolutionary idea in cryptography, as a secure means of transmitting information quickly and securely over long distances instead of relying on messengers. So what caused Thomas Jefferson to need a new means of communication? His invention, never constructed, relied on a simple design independently rediscovered and used during World War II. 

Invisible ink, secret codes, decoder rings, and the 1949 cereal box prize of Captain Midnight’s Key-O-Matic decoder are all examples of how secret communications fascinated the youth of the 19th century.[1] The atmosphere of the Cold War enhanced the allure of sharing messages with a friend that only they could read and only without the instrument necessary for deciphering. Although this technology appears archaic today, the history of cryptography dates back thousands of years, with much of the technology developed from the same conceptual ideas. Today's technology relies upon encryption and security, from bank account numbers to military messaging, and the basic concept remains the same. From the early Greek and Roman society to World War II, the field of cryptography evolved from the need for secrecy in communications to the need for secrecy in financial transactions.  

In Colonial America, the British military benefited from years of cryptography experience. The success of the American Revolution recognized a need for secure correspondence. Even before the Revolution, colonists found ways of secret communication that only increased in need as the American Revolution continued. Both sides used different forms of cryptography with varying success, with the Americans lagging behind the British in technology. France, Germany, and Britain all had divisions of ciphers working to decipher information quickly.

In America, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson recognized that a new means of secret communication was necessary even before the revolution. Both had the advantage of exposure to numerous European ideas and new attempts at basic cryptography. Culminating with Thomas Jefferson inventing a new cipher device, the Jefferson cipher wheel, that was later the basis for several similar independent inventions, how was this idea simple enough to be rediscovered several times with much of the original idea used in the Korean War? Was his idea revolutionary or merely common-sense cryptography? Simple ideas with only tertiary connections could often lead to new discoveries of independent ideas and inventions.    

            The primary focus of cryptography is safeguarding messages from one source or individual to another source or individual that is only legible by the intended recipient.[2] Original messages are transformed into coded text and then delivered to the recipient. If the recipient owns the physical cipher or information necessary to decode the message, the message is translated back into the original form. Ideally, anyone intercepting the message will only see unintelligible information. Cryptography has changed the outcome of numerous military conflicts and protected secrets throughout history. The field of cryptanalysis, or the study of breaking codes, has impacted history through understanding lost languages and guided electronic communications in internet encryption. Cryptanalysis became increasingly necessary as cryptography increased in success.

            Cryptology was only sometimes regarded as vital. Messages relayed from one person to another through couriers remained influential until the realization that carriers could be corrupted or intercepted. The legend of one original cryptogram surrounds the death of Semiramis, a Persian queen. Instructions were inscribed on her tomb on her death with a cryptic message. Although this message kept gravediggers at bay, one curious man deciphered the code to reveal instructions on where to find her treasure. Outside the treasure box was another code, and once deciphered, the man opened the box. Inside was another inscription with another message promising wealth if the final cipher could be decoded. Unfortunately, this cipher was only a jumble of useless letters.[3] Communication at a distance is an idea that originated with the first people having anything worth comminating.[4]

            The basic design of cryptography began with ciphertext or simple substitution. The origin and usages are unknown, but the concept is relatively simple. Each letter has a corresponding symbol or a different letter. For example, shifting the alphabet to 1 letter left or right produces a simple ciphertext. The word for DOG would be transcribed as EPH. Simple to create and simple to design, it is also simple to decipher. Although it seems archaic, all future cryptographical writing is based on this concept, with advancements in how to shift letters to decrease readability to ensure security in correspondence. This includes modern cryptography and the ability to transmit electronic messages without detection. In addition, the basic concept of passcodes is also based on using a crypto "key" for entry.

The Egyptians used encryptions as early as 4000 years ago on the tomb of Khnumhotep II. Scribes carved hieroglyphs on his tomb, recording the details of his life. Unfortunately, some of the hieroglyphs did not match the meanings of obscure translations. In this way, Egyptians used encryption to protect knowledge instead of protecting correspondence.[5] In addition, it was also used to disguise inappropriate language or taboos.

The scytale was one of the most straightforward and earliest tools used in cryptography, initially by the Greeks. Although the exact date of invention is not known, there are mentions of the scytale in writing by Archilochus in the 7th century BC. Unlike later cipher inventions, the scytale did not change the original message. Instead, the message was written on parchment strips wrapped around a baton or rod with one letter in on each visible portion. The message was then unwrapped from the rod and delivered to the recipient. The recipient would wrap the scytale on a rod with the correct circumference, and the message would become legible. Only knowing the correct circumference of the rod would produce the original message.[6]  

Practical and straightforward, it also had the drawback of limited encryption. Through trial and error, intercepted scytales could be deciphered with trial and error with a collection of different size rods. The use of the scytale in military communications is debated based on the ease of decryption and lack of mention in early writings. The primary user may have only been to verify messages to avoid false relayed information.

            The Caesar Cipher, named after Julius Creaser, who used it in communications, was the first recorded cipher to use an alphabet shift to create secret correspondence in large quantities. Shifting letters in the alphabet only required the recipient to know the number of shifts. For example, instead of starting with ABCD, the alphabet would start with DEFG in a 4-letter shift. A would equal D, B would equal C, and so forth. This simple design is one of the most repeated designs, and mechanical variations formed the basis for later cryptography devices, including the Jefferson cipher wheel and the M-95 military cipher. A direct derivative of the Caesar Cipher is the modern ROT13 system. The ROT13 system, consisting of a 13-shift character system, was used in Netscape Communicator in 1999.[7]

            The Achilles heel of the Caesar Cipher was the ease of breaking the code. By counting the number of letters used the most in a language, the reader could logically make inferences about some letters. For example, the letter E is most used in the English alphabet. Therefore, logically, the highest number of repeated uses of a letter would correspond with E. By the 15th century, the homophonic substitution cipher solved this issue by assigning different characters to letters based on the percentage of use. For example, the letter E is used in 11% of the words in the current Oxford English Dictionary, and thus 11 different symbols are chosen at random to represent E. The letter O is used 7% of the time and would be symbolized by one of 7 different symbols. This method was popular during the Renaissance in communications between royalty, but the message was slow to decipher. [8] The interest in cryptography did expand during the Renaissance from only a military or government tool to the use by bankers and merchants. Increased economic trade made it necessary for banking to embrace cryptography for protection.

            Giovan Battista Bellaso, an Italian cryptologist, first conceived of a code that required the recipient to have a code to translate encrypted messages.[9] The critical design added security to secret documents if the key was not discovered. His autokey cipher incorporates the key in one phrase. The key can be derived from the text with knowledge of one agreed-upon letter, or it can be derived from a combination of letters. Simple in design, it lacked the security necessary to be popular in military correspondence.

            As the 15th century progressed, the need to translate secret messages increased. At the same time, Rome and Milan continued to use alphabetically shifted communications with trained scribes to quickly translate messages; Florence, born Leon Battista Alberti, combined letter shifting with cylindrical wheels. First postulated in Al-Qalqashandi during the 14th century, Alberti's polyalphabetic substantiation cipher used multiple alphabets and numerous substitutions to create messages quickly. The recipient needed the correct corresponding key. This key allows the recipient to arrange the disks like the user and translate the message. The principal of Alberti's polyalphabetic cipher disk, first used in 1476, was the basis of numerous future cryptography devices. Alperti’s device was the first simple mechanical hand-operated or manipulated device defined as a modern recognizable cipher device.[10]

            In the 16th century, Giovan Battista Bellaso expanded on the Trimethius cryptology table. This complex table enhanced Alberti's polyalphabetic cipher disk. Balise de Vigenere, a French diplomat, created a stronger autokey cipher in 1596 from a description of Bellaso’s device named the Vigenere cipher. This remained the standard European device for encryption with few adaptations for several years. During the Civil War, the Confederate States of America used a brass cipher disc that implemented the Vigeneres cipher design.[11]. 

            Increased conflicts in Europe presented a new problem for cryptography. It also increased the need for new technology and code breakers. Longer distances of communication delayed message delivery and more opportunity for interception. During the siege of Realmont by the Huguenots in 1628, a coded message was intercepted and deciphered. This message revealed the lack of ammunition by the Huguenots and hastened the defeat of the Huguenots. Recognizing the need for code-breaking as a means of war, European nations expanded agencies to decipher messages and increase the security of current devices for encryption. The greater the distance, the longer the time for correspondence to reach the intended recipient and the more time possible for interception and decoding.

            Although numerous European countries embraced cryptography, the British were the first to lead the way in deciphering agencies. The Napoleonic Wars highlighted the difficulties with early cryptography technology. During the Napoleonic Wars, the British intercepted and broke so many codes from the French that the embarrassed Napoleon ordered the military to create a new and unbreakable code. The Army of Portugal Code, first used in 1811, was broken in less than two days by the British. The second inclination of the Army of Portugal Code was still based on the early cipher wheel but increased the number of combinations to 1400. The added complications initially decreased the ability to break the code, but the complexity led many senders to leave portions unencrypted and thus easily deciphered within the year. The issue of working technology over the ease of use negated any benefits.  

            During the Revolutionary War, the Americans benefited from having intimate knowledge of French, British, and German cryptography. They also had the advantage of recognizing new directions in advanced messaging. Having been directly or indirectly involved in numerous European conflicts and embedded in Europe's diplomatic world, the Americans not only had access to the technology but also knowledge of the shortcomings of cryptography technology. Even though better technology was available, the Americans and the British initially relied on simple techniques to ensure correspondence was secret. Neither the British nor the Americans used the most advanced technique available.[12] Initially, it was up to amateurs leading the Continental Army to create systems of secret correspondence. However, lessons learned during the European conflicts and in the Napoleonic Wars gave cause to step back advancements in cryptography in exchange for simple, reliable techniques of secret correspondence.

            One of the most used forms of secret writing employed by the British and the Americans contained invisible ink. Invisible ink or sympathetic ink can be traced to the 4th century BC.[13]  Unlike the modern chemical inclination of invisible ink, the process during the American Revolution consisted of writing between lines of innocuous correspondence in a formula of sulfate and water. Adding heat to the paper revealed the messages between the somewhat innocent-looking correspondence. Later, sodium carbonate could be added to the letter instead of heat to expose the secret message. Employed overwhelmingly by George Washington in pamphlets, almanacs, and even bank books by his agents, both the Americans and British became quick to use heat or chemicals on all documents to expose messages and thus the technique was not an overwhelming success. Even unofficial documents were routinely heated or treated with chemicals to ensure secret messages were not escaping the military.

            The British also enhanced secret messaging by simply writing sensitive information, not coded, on tiny pieces of paper and then rolling them up small enough to fit into innocuous items like a spoon handle, a button, or a silver ball. The silver ball would be stored with musket balls and could be easily swallowed in the event of capture. This was effective but not practical as the Americans learned to search for items, and one British Spy, Daniel Taylor, was caught swallowing the ball after he was captured and threatened with forced extraction by bayonet until he voluntarily vomited to avoid a painful death. The Americans also used this technique but relied more on letter masking.[14] Letter masking consisted of letters containing hidden messages that could be decoded if the user had the proper mask to cover the page. A heart, hourglass, or other shape cutout was placed over the letter only to expose the vital text. This required an exorbitant amount of time to write for the letter to make sense to a reader while not giving away significant portions to the recipient.[15]

            One of the early cipher techniques in the American Revolution began as a simple monoalphabetic cipher incorporating a sentence or paragraph long enough to contain the 26 letters of the alphabet at least once.          This creates a mixed sequence of letters containing a passage used as a key. One surviving example is a letter from James Lovell, a Committee on Foreign Affairs member, to John Adams in 1871. Lovell suggested the key as the "first sixth part of that Family name where you and I spent our last evening with your lady before we set out on our journey hither.” [16] The resulting key is CR from the name Cranch.

            The numerous written techniques for secret correspondence increased as the American Revolution continued, and nothing was standardized. This led to frequent messages by the Americans and the British being misread. The danger of weak cryptography is discovery and poor translation leading to incorrect or vague messages. In 1775 the Continental Congress recognized the need for a committee to explore means of secret correspondence. Renamed the Committee for Foreign Affairs in 1777, one of the tasks was to standardize information. Robert Livingston, a delegate from New York, had used a private cipher to communicate with the Spanish court. His cipher, a two-part code, used numbers on one side with letters, words, or syllables on the opposite side. A random word written adjacent to the numbers created a new code on the opposite side. Many examples still in existence demonstrate how letters were written with a combination of encryption and unencrypted to save time.[17]Robert Livingston's code list became famous in 1781. 

            Benjamin Franklin, always tinkering with new ideas, also understood the need for secure correspondence.[18] Franklin entered the world of cryptography through a friendship with Charles Dumas.[19] Dumas maintained a residence in the Netherlands during the American Revolution and corresponded regularly with Franklin to show his support for the American cause. During this time, Franklin asked Dumas to spy for the Americans. Unfortunately, his reply could not be deciphered by anyone at the State Department because Dumas used popular French prose to create the cipher. Using a two-part sheet, the first page listed letters and symbols, and the second page listed numbers corresponding to the letter or symbol.[20]  The 682-character length provided several options for commonly used letters.

George Washington relied on invisible ink or a sympathetic stain to write between lines of letters.[21] He also used aliases and codes to conceal information on members' identities.[22] The Culper Ring, a network of spies organized by Benjamin Tallmadge and General George Washington, provided information on the operations of the British Army in New York City.[23] The exposure of Benedict Arnold was discovered through this operation.[24] His correspondence was handwritten and easily deciphered.[25] George Washington’s reliance on invisible ink led him in seeking new chemicals impervious to heat exposure.[26] James Jay, appointed to the New York State Assembly in 1778, invented two new invisible ink fluids that appeared white until treated with a second fluid making invisible ink more practical and increasing George Washington’s reliance on this form of secret writing in correspondence.[27] Attempts were made to standardize after the United States adopted the Constitution in 1789. This official cipher contained 1600-digit codes based on English syllables instead of letters.[28] It was not widely used and was unpopular. The difficulty of use and lack of interest led it to be discontinued in 1815.   

            George Washington knew firsthand the power of decoding messages and the disaster of information gained by the enemy. During the American Revolution, Washington received information from Yorktown that was deciphered but discovered that the information was too old to be of use. Understanding the need for current information and recognizing that the British used the same cipher, he quickly could decipher captured information based on outdated correspondence ciphers.[29]

            As George Washington's secretary of state, Thomas Jefferson primarily relied on hand-carried messages delivered by couriers. This included sensitive letters. It was not until he became minister to France in 1784 that he acknowledged the need for additional security. It was common practice for European postmasters to open any diplomatic letters or suspected correspondence. Jefferson continued to rely on invisible ink and code lists throughout his tenure. The discovery of a more secure ink by John Jay made Jefferson recognize a new and more secure method was needed. He also wanted something easier to use while being simple enough for messages to be written quickly and the recipient to decipher rapidly with little error. 

The wheel or cylindrical cipher, postulated in the 14th century and used during the 15th century, remained primarily forgotten or, at minimum, relegated to the lack of use due to the lack of interest in spending valuable time on a new means of secret communication when more straightforward methods were available. Simple in design and usage, it was quickly discovered when combined with the knowledge of letter-shifting techniques. Although Vigenère’s disk was a physical cipher device, it was not widely used then and was forgotten.

            Thomas Jefferson had a keen interest in science and inventions.[30] With little knowledge of cryptography beyond his exposure to letter shifting, invisible ink, and table coding, he created a device based on shared knowledge, common sense, and necessity. Understanding the minimal basics, Jefferson wrote about a new device that combined table coding and letter shifting with a physical device. The Jefferson Disk or “wheel cipher” was discovered by a researcher in 1922 while looking through original writings.[31]  Consisting of 36 wheels centered around an axle, each of the wheels contained a different random alphabet on the outside. Physically, Jefferson's wheel cipher resembled Vigenère’s disk.[32]  Both contained a 36-character keyword. However, the disks on Jefferson’s wheel cipher contained different random alphabets, while Vigenère's disk contained the same substitution alphabet on each. In addition, Jefferson's wheel cipher arranged the wheels simultaneously along the axes instead of serially like Vigenère's. This allowed the user to communicate securely with others with different wheel arrangements. 

            Using Jefferson’s wheel cipher required the sender to arrange the disks in an agreed-upon wheel order. The sender would spin each disk to spell the first 36 letters of a message. What appeared on the disk would be the message in one line and random letters on all other lines. Knowing the correct order of the disks, the sender could spin the wheel to spell out the random letters in one row, and the message would appear in another. The code could be deciphered only by knowing the correct order to place the wheels. As discovered by Jefferson, the key was the increased mathematical possible combinations. This combination of 36 wheels created fewer combinations than the three-wheel Enigma machine of World War II.[33]

            There is no evidence that Jefferson knew Vigenère's disk, but the similarity in design logically followed a simple design easily replicated and rediscovered.[34]  Before the Roman scytale, the Chinese also created a similar device used as a locking mechanism, and Jefferson may have seen a Chinese combination lock or read about it. However, the only evidence is Jefferson's subscription to a magazine containing an article on the Chinese combination lock which became popular in 1790s France.

            The idea of the Chinese combination lock was first used in 13th century China and is remarkably like all cylinder ciphers. Consisting of a central axis surrounded by cubes or rings inscribed by characters, the user unlocks the device by using the proper sequence of codes to align openings in the outer cubes or rings and releasing the lock. Even the locking mechanisms of today are based on the same concept of this Chinese combination lock.   

            When Jefferson became president, he chose the Vigenère cipher for the Lewis and Clark expedition and continued to use table cryptology throughout his political career. However, Jefferson's lack of a background in cryptography probably led to his inability to recognize his device as superior to existing table ciphers or, at a minimum, too new to implement in a system already in place. He also would have faced resistance in the military usage of a new device during a time when the need for secret correspondence was not as prevalent as during the American Revolution.

            Jefferson’s creation of a physical wheel cipher from his notes into a working prototype is absent in any surviving records. However, a similar wheel cipher was discovered near Jefferson's home in Monticello. Although it functioned precisely as Jefferson designed, the device discovered contained 40 characters in French on each wheel and holes in each disk to maintain the wheel positions after the correct order was achieved. This is like Jefferson’s notes but contains numerous variations not mentioned. 

            The uniqueness of the wheel cipher also overshadows the simplicity of the design. Unlike other inventions, the wheel cipher was invented, forgotten, reinvented, forgotten, and invented again independently! Some of this may be attributed to being forgotten due to the lack of usage between military conflicts, only to be rediscovered as the need increased. If the technology of secret correspondence continued to work efficiently, new designs would slowly gain acceptance. Table cipher technology remained relatively unchanged and valuable; thus, the need for advanced cryptography was unnecessary. However, when it was necessary to increase secure transmissions, the mathematical combination possibilities of the cipher wheel, ease of usage, and readily available material inspired others to rediscover the technology.

            In 1891, a French military cryptanalyst also formulated plans for a cipher wheel independently from Jefferson's design. Born in 1846, Étienne Bazeries was a French military cryptanalyst during WWI.[35]  Considered a brilliant cryptanalyst and understanding the need for a mathematically challenging code, Bazeries combined the knowledge of cryptography with a physical wheel to create the Great Cipher.[36]  Bazeries’ cipher used 20 or 30 disks sharing a standard axle with random numbers, symbols, and letters on the outside.[37]  Unlike Jefferson’s wheel cipher, Bazeries’ cipher had the advantage of being produced in large numbers during a time when the necessity of secure communication also competed with new electronic telegraph communications, and Bazeries’ cipher was easily and securely used in long distant transmissions. The difficulty in breaking codes after using Brazeries cipher led to forming of independent military organizations tasked with code breaking and disseminating information.[38]

            During the Civil War, independent discoveries of cryptography reverted to alphabetical shifts as a means of communicating. For example, Albert Myer developed a method of relaying messages using signal flags, or flag telegraphy, using letters, directions, and combinations. Another device, possibly used during this time, was Bolton's Cipher Wheel. Although little is known about the inventory, it consisted of only one wheel and an inner ring as a decryption device.[39] Also simple in use, the basic design is not unremarkable compared to Jefferson’s wheel cipher with one disk and a center decoder instead of numerous disks on a central axis.  

The M-94, adopted by the United States Army in 1922, modernized cryptography into the 20th century.[40]  Although adapted in 1922, the same year Jefferson’s wheel cipher papers were discovered, it was independently conceived by Colonel Parker Hitt in 1917 and developed by Joseph Oswald Mauborgne.[41]  Like Jefferson's wheel cipher, the M-94 contained disks attached by a central rod. Each disc, 25 in total, contained random Roman alphabet letters.[42]  The only exception was the 17th disk that contained the letters arranged to spell ARMY OF THE US before the remaining 16 random letters. Made of aluminum, the M-94 was lightweight, sturdy, and easily assembled. Unlike Jefferson's wheel cipher, the 25 disks made it possible only to encode 25 letters simultaneously. One advantage of the Hitt cipher wheel was its small size. A little more than 4 inches in length, it was easily concealed and transported in a pocket. Using the M-94 required little experience, and more than 9000 were produced between 1921 and 1943. 

The U.S. Navy also adopted the M-94 under the name CSP 488 without the ARMY OF THE US disk and instead contained a random letter disk in its place.[43] Also invented during this time was the M-138, which used strips of cardboard on a flat surface with the same concept as aluminum shortages required a change in design.[44]  These designs continued to be standard cipher equipment through the mid-1940s, when the mechanical M-209, based loosely on the same concept, remained in use through the Korean War.[45] Also easily used, small enough to fit into a pocket, and durable, the 150000 M-209's were produced. This standardization and ease of use led to the military requiring personnel to be trained on the essential use of standard communication.[46] 

            The culmination of cipher wheel technology yielded the Enigma machine used by Nazi Germany. Although still based on the simple concept of coded wheels, the Enigma machine is unlike any previous concepts. The Enigma machine effectively ended the rediscovery of previous cryptography technology, yet many of the simple concepts are still recognizable in parts of the machine.

             Thomas Jefferson's cipher wheel may not have been recognized at the time as a revolution in cryptography. However, just as earlier designs were lost and rediscovered, the Jefferson cipher wheel demonstrated the ability of simple designs and logic to continue the process of reinvention. Had his invention been created and used, later cryptography devices would have been heralded as improvements on his design. Instead, the common thread remains that the need for secure communications throughout history has maintained relationships with previous ideas, often simple in design and easily discovered.

            Physically, all the cipher devices from Alberti’s polyalphabetic cipher disk to the M-94 have parts easily recognizable and simple to construct. The material and language may be different, but the concept of a wheel to shift letters is such a standard design that the independent rediscovery of the operational use spanned generations. Even with the similarities to other devices, Thomas Jefferson could easily have discovered his invention independently. The common thread between all cryptography is the need for secrecy, and as time progressed, so did the need for additional methods of secret correspondence. The waning and waxing of these inventions and rediscovery corresponded with the increased need. Simple logical technology made it possible.

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