Zenith Space Command

Zenith Space Command was a pioneering remote control device for televisions first introduced in the 1950s. It was one of the earliest wireless remote controls for TVs, predating the more common infrared remotes that came later.

The Zenith Space Command used ultrasonic sound waves to send commands to the television set. When a button was pressed on the remote control, it emitted an inaudible ultrasonic signal that the TV could detect and interpret as a command, such as changing the channel or adjusting the volume.

The original Zenith Space Command remote was connected to the television by a cable, so it was not entirely wireless. However, it still allowed viewers to control the TV from a distance, a significant advancement. Before this innovation, viewers had to manually adjust the television's controls or use mechanical tuning knobs.

The Zenith Space Command remotes were groundbreaking and became widely popular in their day. They paved the way for the development of more advanced and sophisticated remote control technologies that followed, including the infrared remotes that are now commonly used for televisions and other electronic devices.

ENIAC

ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, was one of the earliest general-purpose electronic computers. It was designed and built during World War II to solve complex mathematical calculations for the United States Army.

Here's a brief history of ENIAC:

1. Development and Construction:

ENIAC was developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. The project started in 1943 with the support of the U.S. Army. Mauchly and Eckert aimed to build a machine that could perform high-speed calculations for artillery trajectory tables.

2. Design and Architecture:

ENIAC was a massive computer that occupied a large room, covering approximately 1,800 square feet (167 square meters). It consisted of 40 panels, each 9 feet tall and 2 feet wide, containing over 17,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, and numerous other electronic components.

3. Functionality:

ENIAC was a decimal-based computer, capable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and other arithmetic operations. It could also store and manipulate numbers in its internal memory. However, ENIAC was not programmable in the way modern computers are. Instead, it was reprogrammed by physically rewiring its panels and switches.

4. First Operation:

ENIAC became operational in late 1945, and its first successful calculation was performed on December 10, 1945. It computed the trajectory of a projectile, which would have taken around 20 hours using manual methods, in just 30 seconds.

5. Contributions and Impact:

ENIAC played a crucial role in various scientific and military calculations. It was used for a range of tasks, including the development of the hydrogen bomb, weather prediction, atomic energy calculations, and more. Its successful operation marked a significant milestone in the history of computing and set the stage for further advancements in the field.

6. Legacy and Further Developments:

Following the success of ENIAC, Mauchly and Eckert went on to develop the UNIVAC I, the first commercially available computer. This marked the transition from the era of massive, specialized machines like ENIAC to more general-purpose computers that could be used for a wide range of applications.

ENIAC's historical significance lies in its pioneering role as one of the earliest electronic computers, showcasing the potential of electronic computation and laying the foundation for the modern digital era.

The Answering Machine

Before the Cellphone

Yes, people still use the cellphone to make phone calls! What would the phone be without the ability to ignore calls and send them to voicemail? Today, younger generations take the ability to leave voice messages for granted, but a physical device attached to the home phone was never required to miss that important message. Gone are the days of families gathering around the answering machine trying to record a message since the phone call could be for anyone in the household.

Ross Makes a New Answering Machine Message

A Physical Device

The most common answering machine required a user to attach the device to a phone, insert a blank cassette tape, and record a welcome. When the phone rang, the user had only a few rings to pick up the phone before the answering machine connected. The caller had an opportunity to leave a message, recorded on the cassette tape, and then the owner could play it back. The first answering machine development was a gradual process that dates to the late 19th century. There were several inventors and innovations, but the earliest tangible answering machine did not appear until the early 20th century.

George has the Answer

Telegraphone

One of the earliest attempts at creating an automatic response device was the "Telegraphone," invented by Valdemar Poulsen in 1898. The Telegraphone was designed to record telephone conversations onto a wire, allowing the user to replay later recorded messages. While not precisely an answering machine, it laid the foundation for recording and playing back audio messages. By 1903, Poulsen sold his patent to a group of investors. Forming the American Telegraphone Company of Washington, D.C., the Telegraphone was sold mainly as a scientific instrument. Regarding popularity in the public sector, only two people purchased Telegraphones.

1980s Answering Machine Cassette

Hörzufernsprecher

By the 1930s and 1940s, inventors began working on devices that could record and play back phone messages automatically. The Dictaphone, a wax cylinder recording device, dominated the business recording market, and a working playback phone device would revolutionize business communications. One notable example of an early answering machine is Willy Müller’s "Hörzufernsprecher." Müller created the device in 1935. This device could record messages on 35mm film using magnetic technology. It was a groundbreaking invention, but the machine didn't become widely available due to the technological limitations of the time and the disruption caused by World War II. It was only manufactured and available in Germany.

The "Electronic Secretary"

The first widely recognized commercial answering machine came into existence in the 1950s. Dr. Kazuo Hashimoto, a Japanese-American engineer, invented it in 1954. Hashimoto developed the "Electronic Secretary" device while working at Bell Labs. This machine used magnetic recording tape to store and playback voice messages. The device was hefty and required manual operation, but it marked a significant step forward in developing answering machines.

The Electronic Secretary was principally marketed for businesses and professionals. Still, it paved the way for more compact and user-friendly answering machines that became popular in homes in the 1960s and 1970s. The answering machines of the 1960s and 1970s used cassette tapes and microcassettes to record and play back messages. Some of the more revolutionary features were the tape counter, remote message retrieval system, and adjustable recording time.

Families Recorded Together

Recording the outgoing message on the answering machine became a creative outlet for people in the 1980s. The more outrageous, the better. Celebrities advertised recording the outgoing message for consumers, and companies capitalized on selling innovative tapes to use in the answering machine.

Dangers

The danger of physical answering machines was the unencrypted recording that could be played on any tape deck. Anyone in the house that pushed the button had access to any message. Legally, answering machine tapes were not considered wiretapping and could be used against a person without a specific warrant to record phone conversations.

1980s State of the Art Answering Machine

• iStock Photos

Digital Machines End an Era

The technology-hungry consumer of the 1980s and 1990s increased the answering machine's popularity as technology improved and prices dropped. Digital answering machines replaced analog ones, and digital answering machines offered better sound quality and more features. The smartphone and digital communication of the 2000s effectively ended the popularity of the traditional answering machine. Landlines have been replaced with cellphones, yet voicemail technology began with early innovations and the need never to miss an important message.

Zoot Suit Riots

The Zoot Suit Riots were a series of racially charged clashes in Los Angeles, California 1943. The riots involved violence between white servicemen, predominantly sailors and soldiers, and Mexican-American youth who wore distinctive clothing known as "zoot suits." A "zoot suit" is a men's clothing style popularized during the 1940s. Oversized and exaggerated proportions characterize it. It typically features a long, drape-cut jacket with wide lapels, high-waisted, baggy trousers, a long-chain pocket watch, a fedora hat, and often a wide, brightly colored tie.

During the 1940s, World War II was in full swing, and Los Angeles saw a significant influx of military personnel due to its strategic military installations and defense industries. The city also had a large Mexican-American population, many facing discrimination and social challenges. Zoot suits, popular among young Mexican-Americans, were flamboyant and characterized by wide-legged trousers, long coats with padded shoulders, and oversized fedora hats.

The tensions between white service members and Mexican-American youths escalated in June 1943 when a series of confrontations began. The catalyst for the riots was an incident on May 31, 1943, known as the "Sleepy Lagoon Murder." A young Mexican-American man named José Díaz was found dead near a reservoir. Despite lacking evidence, several Mexican-American youths were arrested and wrongfully convicted for the crime.

In response to this incident, a group of sailors allegedly targeted Mexican Americans, especially those wearing zoot suits, blaming them for the murder and other perceived social issues. The attacks on Mexican-American youth wearing zoot suits became more frequent, leading to violence and unrest.

The violence peaked on June 3, 1943, when a mob of several thousand servicemen and civilians roamed the streets of Los Angeles, looking for Mexican-American youths to attack. They targeted and beat anyone wearing a zoot suit and sometimes stripped the victims of their clothing. The police initially did little to intervene, which led to further chaos and lawlessness.

The Zoot Suit Riots resulted in numerous injuries and arrests, primarily affecting Mexican-American youths. While some white rioters faced consequences for their actions, the overall response from law enforcement and the media was criticized for being biased toward the white service members.

In the aftermath of the riots, the authorities arrested hundreds of Mexican-American youths, many of whom were not directly involved in the violence. This further deepened the sense of injustice and racial tension in the community. 

The Zoot Suit Riots brought attention to the issue of racial discrimination and unequal treatment of minority communities, particularly Mexican-Americans, in the United States. It also highlighted the role of the media in shaping public perceptions and influencing public opinion during times of social unrest.

In subsequent years, the Zoot Suit Riots symbolized resistance and unity within the Mexican-American community. The incident also catalyzed civil rights activism, raising awareness about the need for equal rights and social justice for all Americans, regardless of ethnicity or background.

Rough on Rats

Rough on Rats

Updated on August 15, 2023

Dr. Scott Cooper

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Dr. Cooper is an Adjunct Professor of History, and his research interests include social media's history on society and technology.

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Obituaries Were Once More Descriptive

The level of personal privacy and what today is considered morbid was absent in the late 1800s or early 1900s. When someone died, it was not uncommon for the newspapers to print the manner of death for the interested reader. The more spectacular the end, the more interest was garnered by the newspaper. A quick scan of newspaper obituaries from this era shows all manner of death. For example, the paper may list “John Smith, who jumped from a building” or “John Smith, who died jumping in front of a train.” In increasingly more cases from the 1890s, the obituary might read “John Smith, Rough on Rats” without explanation. Other than making an exciting punk rock band name, “Rough on Rats” does have a meaning that the reader would have understood during this time.

Tuesday May 14 1889 Suicide Obituary

• 14 May 1889 - SUICIDE BY TAKING "ROUGH ON RATS." - Trove
  An enquiry into the cause of the death of Duncan McCulloch, who died at the Adelaide Hospital on Sunday from taking " Rough on Rate," was held by Mr. Coroner Whittell at ...

Ephraim Wells

Explaining “Rough on Rats” as a manner of death began in the early 1870s. Selling his medicines and poisons retail from a storefront, Ephraim Wells barely broke even and considered bankruptcy. The storefront was not full of customers, and it was full of rats! Using chemicals, including arsenic, in his shop, he concocted a mixture to kill the rats overrunning his shop. 18972 In 1872, his wife observed the gruesome death rats experienced while working in the shop. Exclaiming to him in a joke that his new poison was rough on rats, Wells found the name for his new product, “Rough on Rats! Cleverly patenting the title, he closed the retail shop and started advertising his new product to be sold through the mail.

Dyspepsia

Source

Mother Swan’s Worm Syrup

Wells set out to create advertising for his new product and initially featured pictures of wide-eyed cats looking at the product with the caption, Our Occupation Gone! Within a year, Wells marketed “Rough on Rats” through imaginative advertising worldwide. “Rough on Rats” became so popular that Wells tried to capitalize on other products using the same catchy name. “Rough on Corns” and “Rough on Toothache” were two products Wells manufactured in Jersey City, New Jersey, along with “Skinny Men Health Renewer” and “Mother Swan’s Worm Syrup.” Although successful, Wells’ other products failed to rise to the success of “Rough on Rats.”

Worldwide Popularity

By the early 1900s, “Rough on Rats” was sold worldwide, with Wells spending over $70,000 a year on advertising. He expanded into the music publishing business and created a simple song for “Rough on Rats.” Jack London mentions “Rough on Rats” in “That Spot” and The Mutiny of the Elsinore. Wells expanded his advertising to state that “Rough on Rats” would kill any pest in the house, including bed bugs, roaches, and flies. Cheap and readily available, “Rough on Rats” was found on the shelves of even the poorest consumers.

Catchy Jingle

R-r-rats! Rats! Rats!

“Rough on Rats,”

Hang your dogs and drown your cats;

We give a plan for every man,

To clear his house with “Rough on Rats.”

Suicide by Rat Poison

“Rough on Rats” became a worldwide best-selling product. Unfortunately, unrest followed the success. The popularity of “Rough on Rats” created one drawback anywhere it was sold: besides the death of millions of rats around the world. By the early 1900s, “Rough on Rats” increasingly became the preferred method for suicides in the lower classes. Suicide deaths rose during the early 20th century, with poising the leading cause. Although no statistical data has been compiled, “Rough on Rats” was mentioned frequently in every newspaper across the globe during the early 20th century as a manner of death. In addition, “Rough on Rats” contributed to numerous accidental deaths. “Rough on Rats” increasingly became a means of murder worldwide. American slang in the early 1900s included “Rough on Rats” to mean someone in a challenging situation or down on his luck. After the death of Wells in 1913, “Rough on Rats” remained available until the 1950s.

From Rats to Syphilis

The popularity of arsenic rose through the late 1900s and eventually found its way into contaminating numerous food sources. Seafood, especially bivalves, were most susceptible to arsenic runoff. Farmers used arsenic in large quantities to rid crops of unwanted pests. Lumber companies used arsenic as a wood preservative in outdoor structures. During World War II, an arsenic derivative, Arsphenamine, was used to cure syphilis successfully. Arsenic production was eventually discontinued in the United States and is no longer used in domestic products, although it is still used in some industrial manufacturing processes.

“Rough on Rats” may no longer be on your local hardware store shelf or be part of American slang, but the lasting impact of “Rough on Rats” has increased over the previous decade with genealogists discovering the manner of death of distant relatives.

Salvarsan

• Early Solution | Science History Institute
  In the 19th century arsenic was often the poison of choice for murderers. In the early 20th century its image was redeemed when an arsenic derivative became the salvation of those suffering from syphilis.

Buttons of the American Revolutionary War

The Continental Army and numerous state militias used several noteworthy buttons during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Most buttons from this era were made of numerous materials, made of brass, wood, or pewter. These buttons typically featured distinctive designs or symbols representing the revolutionary cause. Here are some of the notable buttons from the Revolutionary War era:

Massachusetts "Pine Tree" Button: These buttons were used by the Massachusetts Bay Colony troops and featured a pine tree design. The Pine Tree was an important symbol of resistance against British authority.

Continental Army "Great Seal" Button: Some buttons displayed the Great Seal of the United States, which features an eagle with a shield, holding an olive branch and arrows. The Continental Army used these buttons to symbolize their loyalty to the emerging nation.

Virginia State Seal Button: The Virginia state troops used buttons with the Virginia state seal, which includes the Roman goddess Virtus (representing virtue) standing over a defeated British figure.

New York "Excelsior" Button: New York troops used buttons with the word "Excelsior," which means "ever upward" in Latin. This motto represented the determination to achieve higher goals.

South Carolina "Liberty" Button: South Carolina buttons often featured the word "Liberty" and a palmetto tree or other revolutionary symbols.

Connecticut "Hartford Convention" Button: Some Connecticut regiments used buttons with a design referencing the Hartford Convention, a meeting of New England states during the War of 1812. The convention discussed their grievances and sought to limit the federal government's power.

Maryland "Sword in Hand" Button: Maryland troops used buttons featuring the state coat of arms, which included a figure holding a sword in hand, representing the readiness to defend their rights.

Buttons of the Revolutionary War are collector items and museum pieces. 

Computer Mouse

If you own a computer, you know the mouse is essential in inputting information and controlling the cursor. Douglas Engelbart and his Stanford Research Institute (SRI) team invented the computer mouse in the early 1960s.

Here's a brief history of the computer mouse:

1. Invention of the Mouse (1960s): Douglas Engelbart, a computer scientist, and his team developed the first prototype of the computer mouse in the mid-1960s. The device was a wooden shell with two perpendicular wheels that could roll on a surface and translate the movement into cursor movement on a screen.

2. Public Debut (1968): The computer mouse gained public attention during "The Mother of All Demos" in 1968, where Douglas Engelbart showcased a range of groundbreaking technologies, including the mouse, at a computer conference in San Francisco. The demonstration introduced the concept of using a mouse to interact with a graphical user interface (GUI).

3. Early Commercialization (1970s): Various computer companies began experimenting with the mouse following the demonstration. In 1970, Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) developed a more practical mouse design using a rubber ball instead of wheels, allowing smoother movement. This design became a standard for many subsequent mouse models.

4. Mouse Becomes Mainstream (1980s): The 1980s marked the era when personal computers started gaining popularity, and the mouse became a mainstream input device. Apple's Lisa computer, released in 1983, was one of the first commercially successful computers to incorporate a mouse as a standard input device. The same year, the Apple Macintosh was introduced with a mouse, further popularizing its use.

5. Optical Mouse (1990s): The traditional mechanical mouse with a rubber ball had some limitations, such as the need for regular cleaning. In the 1990s, optical mice were introduced, which used a tiny camera to track movement and eliminated the need for a ball. Optical mice offered more precise tracking and required less maintenance.

6. Wireless and Ergonomic Mice (2000s): The 2000s saw the advent of wireless mice, which relied on infrared or radio frequency technology to transmit signals to the computer, eliminating the need for a physical connection. Additionally, ergonomic designs became more prevalent, focusing on providing greater comfort and reducing wrist strain during extended computer use.

7. Advancements in Sensor Technology: In recent years, mouse technology has advanced significantly. Optical sensors have been replaced with laser sensors, which provide even greater accuracy and work on a wider range of surfaces. High polling rates and adjustable DPI (dots per inch) settings allow users to customize their mouse sensitivity to suit their preferences.

8. Evolving Form Factors: While the traditional mouse shape has remained popular, alternative form factors have emerged. Gaming mice, for example, often feature additional buttons, customizable weights, and RGB lighting. There are also trackballs, touch-sensitive surfaces, and other innovations that provide different methods of cursor control.

The computer mouse has become integral to modern computing, enabling intuitive and precise interaction with graphical user interfaces. Its invention and subsequent evolution have greatly contributed to the development of human-computer interaction.

Chewing Gum

The history of chewing gum dates back thousands of years, with evidence of ancient civilizations chewing various substances for enjoyment and health benefits. Here is a brief overview of the history of chewing gum:

Ancient Times:

- Early evidence of gum-like substances being chewed comes from ancient civilizations. The Greeks chewed mastic gum derived from the resin of the mastic tree, while the Mayans and Aztecs in Central America chewed chicle, a natural gum made from the sap of the sapodilla tree.

19th Century:

- Chewing gum, in its modern form, emerged in the 19th century. In 1848, John B. Curtis, a Maine entrepreneur, started producing and selling spruce gum derived from the resin of spruce trees. Spruce gum became famous as a chewing gum ingredient.

- In the 1860s, Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna introduced chicle to the United States as a potential rubber substitute. However, it did not find success as a rubber substitute but gained popularity as a chewing gum ingredient due to its pleasant taste and chewy texture.

- In 1871, Thomas Adams, a photographer, and inventor, was introduced to chicle by Santa Anna and started experimenting with it. He developed the first commercial chewing gum, "Adams New York Chewing Gum." Adams' company would later become one of the most significant gum manufacturers in the United States.

Late 19th to Early 20th Century:

- Chewing gum production expanded rapidly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Various flavors, including spearmint and wintergreen, were introduced to enhance the taste. Companies like Wrigley, Beech-Nut, and Dentyne became well-known names in the gum industry.

- In 1891, William Wrigley Jr., who initially sold baking powder, began offering chewing gum as a free bonus with his baking powder. The gum's popularity grew, and Wrigley shifted his focus to chewing gum production, eventually establishing the Wrigley Company, one of the leading global gum manufacturers.

- As the industry evolved, gum formulations improved. Initially, gum bases were made from natural substances like chicle, but synthetic gum bases were developed in the early 20th century, providing greater consistency and durability.

Mid-20th Century to Present:

- The mid-20th century brought advancements in gum packaging and marketing. The introduction of sugar-free and breath-freshening gums expanded the market further. Chewing gum became associated with oral hygiene and fresh breath.

- Today, various chewing gum flavors, shapes, and brands are available worldwide. Chewing gum is produced using synthetic gum bases, sweeteners, flavors, and other ingredients. Millions of people enjoy it for various reasons, including oral care, stress relief, and breath freshening.

Overall, the history of chewing gum has seen it evolve from natural resins to synthetic formulations, becoming a popular and widely consumed product enjoyed by people of all ages.

The Pocket Watch

The first pocket watches originated in the 16th century. However, they were pretty different from the pocket watches we are familiar with today. The earliest pocket watches were large and bulky, like portable clocks carried in their pockets. They were typically made in the shape of a sphere or cylinder and were powered by weights or springs.

Peter Henlein, a German locksmith and watchmaker, is often credited with inventing the pocket watch around 1504. His early designs were portable timepieces worn on a chain around the neck or carried in a pocket.

These early pocket watches had only an hour hand and didn't have a minute hand or a protective glass cover over the dial. The time was usually set by observing the sun's position or using other reference timepieces.

Over time, pocket watches became more refined and compact. They evolved into minute hands, protective covers or lids, and more intricate designs. The introduction of the balance spring in the 17th century significantly improved their accuracy and made them more practical.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, pocket watches had become highly valued and fashionable. They were often crafted with intricate engravings, made of precious metals, and adorned with gemstones. Pocket watches remained the primary timekeeping devices until the late 19th century, when wristwatches started gaining popularity.

Today, pocket watches are considered more of a vintage or luxury item, often sought after by collectors or individuals who appreciate their historical and aesthetic value. They are less commonly used for everyday timekeeping purposes, with wristwatches and smartphones being more prevalent.

First Battle of WWI

The first battle of World War I is generally considered the Battle of Liège, which took place from August 5 to August 16, 1914. Liège was a strategically important city in Belgium, and its fortifications played a crucial role in the German invasion of Belgium.

During the battle, the heavily fortified city of Liège was defended by Belgian forces against the advancing German army. The Belgian defenders put up a valiant resistance, but they were ultimately overwhelmed by the superior firepower and numbers of the German forces. The Germans utilized heavy artillery, including howitzers and siege guns, to bombard the fortifications and breach the defensive lines.

The fall of Liège marked the initial success of the German Schlieffen Plan, which aimed to defeat France by invading Belgium and swiftly encircling Paris. Although the Belgian forces could not hold off the German advance, their resistance at Liège delayed it, allowing the French and British armies more time to mobilize.

It's worth noting that some other minor engagements and skirmishes occurred before the Battle of Liège, as various nations mobilized their forces and clashed along their borders. However, Liège is often considered the first major battle of World War I.