ENIAC

ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, was one of the earliest general-purpose electronic computers. It was designed and built during World War II to solve complex mathematical calculations for the United States Army.

Here's a brief history of ENIAC:

1. Development and Construction:

ENIAC was developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. The project started in 1943 with the support of the U.S. Army. Mauchly and Eckert aimed to build a machine that could perform high-speed calculations for artillery trajectory tables.

2. Design and Architecture:

ENIAC was a massive computer that occupied a large room, covering approximately 1,800 square feet (167 square meters). It consisted of 40 panels, each 9 feet tall and 2 feet wide, containing over 17,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, and numerous other electronic components.

3. Functionality:

ENIAC was a decimal-based computer, capable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and other arithmetic operations. It could also store and manipulate numbers in its internal memory. However, ENIAC was not programmable in the way modern computers are. Instead, it was reprogrammed by physically rewiring its panels and switches.

4. First Operation:

ENIAC became operational in late 1945, and its first successful calculation was performed on December 10, 1945. It computed the trajectory of a projectile, which would have taken around 20 hours using manual methods, in just 30 seconds.

5. Contributions and Impact:

ENIAC played a crucial role in various scientific and military calculations. It was used for a range of tasks, including the development of the hydrogen bomb, weather prediction, atomic energy calculations, and more. Its successful operation marked a significant milestone in the history of computing and set the stage for further advancements in the field.

6. Legacy and Further Developments:

Following the success of ENIAC, Mauchly and Eckert went on to develop the UNIVAC I, the first commercially available computer. This marked the transition from the era of massive, specialized machines like ENIAC to more general-purpose computers that could be used for a wide range of applications.

ENIAC's historical significance lies in its pioneering role as one of the earliest electronic computers, showcasing the potential of electronic computation and laying the foundation for the modern digital era.

The Answering Machine

Before the Cellphone

Yes, people still use the cellphone to make phone calls! What would the phone be without the ability to ignore calls and send them to voicemail? Today, younger generations take the ability to leave voice messages for granted, but a physical device attached to the home phone was never required to miss that important message. Gone are the days of families gathering around the answering machine trying to record a message since the phone call could be for anyone in the household.

Ross Makes a New Answering Machine Message

A Physical Device

The most common answering machine required a user to attach the device to a phone, insert a blank cassette tape, and record a welcome. When the phone rang, the user had only a few rings to pick up the phone before the answering machine connected. The caller had an opportunity to leave a message, recorded on the cassette tape, and then the owner could play it back. The first answering machine development was a gradual process that dates to the late 19th century. There were several inventors and innovations, but the earliest tangible answering machine did not appear until the early 20th century.

George has the Answer

Telegraphone

One of the earliest attempts at creating an automatic response device was the "Telegraphone," invented by Valdemar Poulsen in 1898. The Telegraphone was designed to record telephone conversations onto a wire, allowing the user to replay later recorded messages. While not precisely an answering machine, it laid the foundation for recording and playing back audio messages. By 1903, Poulsen sold his patent to a group of investors. Forming the American Telegraphone Company of Washington, D.C., the Telegraphone was sold mainly as a scientific instrument. Regarding popularity in the public sector, only two people purchased Telegraphones.

1980s Answering Machine Cassette

Hörzufernsprecher

By the 1930s and 1940s, inventors began working on devices that could record and play back phone messages automatically. The Dictaphone, a wax cylinder recording device, dominated the business recording market, and a working playback phone device would revolutionize business communications. One notable example of an early answering machine is Willy Müller’s "Hörzufernsprecher." Müller created the device in 1935. This device could record messages on 35mm film using magnetic technology. It was a groundbreaking invention, but the machine didn't become widely available due to the technological limitations of the time and the disruption caused by World War II. It was only manufactured and available in Germany.

The "Electronic Secretary"

The first widely recognized commercial answering machine came into existence in the 1950s. Dr. Kazuo Hashimoto, a Japanese-American engineer, invented it in 1954. Hashimoto developed the "Electronic Secretary" device while working at Bell Labs. This machine used magnetic recording tape to store and playback voice messages. The device was hefty and required manual operation, but it marked a significant step forward in developing answering machines.

The Electronic Secretary was principally marketed for businesses and professionals. Still, it paved the way for more compact and user-friendly answering machines that became popular in homes in the 1960s and 1970s. The answering machines of the 1960s and 1970s used cassette tapes and microcassettes to record and play back messages. Some of the more revolutionary features were the tape counter, remote message retrieval system, and adjustable recording time.

Families Recorded Together

Recording the outgoing message on the answering machine became a creative outlet for people in the 1980s. The more outrageous, the better. Celebrities advertised recording the outgoing message for consumers, and companies capitalized on selling innovative tapes to use in the answering machine.

Dangers

The danger of physical answering machines was the unencrypted recording that could be played on any tape deck. Anyone in the house that pushed the button had access to any message. Legally, answering machine tapes were not considered wiretapping and could be used against a person without a specific warrant to record phone conversations.

1980s State of the Art Answering Machine

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Digital Machines End an Era

The technology-hungry consumer of the 1980s and 1990s increased the answering machine's popularity as technology improved and prices dropped. Digital answering machines replaced analog ones, and digital answering machines offered better sound quality and more features. The smartphone and digital communication of the 2000s effectively ended the popularity of the traditional answering machine. Landlines have been replaced with cellphones, yet voicemail technology began with early innovations and the need never to miss an important message.

Zoot Suit Riots

The Zoot Suit Riots were a series of racially charged clashes in Los Angeles, California 1943. The riots involved violence between white servicemen, predominantly sailors and soldiers, and Mexican-American youth who wore distinctive clothing known as "zoot suits." A "zoot suit" is a men's clothing style popularized during the 1940s. Oversized and exaggerated proportions characterize it. It typically features a long, drape-cut jacket with wide lapels, high-waisted, baggy trousers, a long-chain pocket watch, a fedora hat, and often a wide, brightly colored tie.

During the 1940s, World War II was in full swing, and Los Angeles saw a significant influx of military personnel due to its strategic military installations and defense industries. The city also had a large Mexican-American population, many facing discrimination and social challenges. Zoot suits, popular among young Mexican-Americans, were flamboyant and characterized by wide-legged trousers, long coats with padded shoulders, and oversized fedora hats.

The tensions between white service members and Mexican-American youths escalated in June 1943 when a series of confrontations began. The catalyst for the riots was an incident on May 31, 1943, known as the "Sleepy Lagoon Murder." A young Mexican-American man named José Díaz was found dead near a reservoir. Despite lacking evidence, several Mexican-American youths were arrested and wrongfully convicted for the crime.

In response to this incident, a group of sailors allegedly targeted Mexican Americans, especially those wearing zoot suits, blaming them for the murder and other perceived social issues. The attacks on Mexican-American youth wearing zoot suits became more frequent, leading to violence and unrest.

The violence peaked on June 3, 1943, when a mob of several thousand servicemen and civilians roamed the streets of Los Angeles, looking for Mexican-American youths to attack. They targeted and beat anyone wearing a zoot suit and sometimes stripped the victims of their clothing. The police initially did little to intervene, which led to further chaos and lawlessness.

The Zoot Suit Riots resulted in numerous injuries and arrests, primarily affecting Mexican-American youths. While some white rioters faced consequences for their actions, the overall response from law enforcement and the media was criticized for being biased toward the white service members.

In the aftermath of the riots, the authorities arrested hundreds of Mexican-American youths, many of whom were not directly involved in the violence. This further deepened the sense of injustice and racial tension in the community. 

The Zoot Suit Riots brought attention to the issue of racial discrimination and unequal treatment of minority communities, particularly Mexican-Americans, in the United States. It also highlighted the role of the media in shaping public perceptions and influencing public opinion during times of social unrest.

In subsequent years, the Zoot Suit Riots symbolized resistance and unity within the Mexican-American community. The incident also catalyzed civil rights activism, raising awareness about the need for equal rights and social justice for all Americans, regardless of ethnicity or background.

A Journey Through The History of Pac-Man

Pac-Man Fever

If you were old enough to play arcade games in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Pac-Man dominated the industry. By 1983, users had spent as many as 10 billion coins to play the game. The popularity of Pac-Man and a resurgence in vintage video games has made it one of the most iconic and enduring video games ever. Pac-Man-inspired cartoons, merchandise, and even a top 10 song, “Pac-Man Fever” by Buckner and Garcia. Like no other game, Pac-Man has captured gamers' hearts internationally since its introduction; created by the Japanese designer Toru Iwatani, Pac-Man has impacted pop culture and the gaming industry.

Toru Iwatani Creates an Iconic Legend

On May 22, 1980, Pac-Man was developed by Toru Iwatani and released by Namco (now known as Bandai Namco Entertainment) in Japan. In the 70s and 80s, most video games were aimed at boys, and Toru Iwatani designed the game with women in mind. Another issue recognized by Iwatani was the number of video games based on violence or sports. Iwatani was inspired to create a game that appealed to women and non-traditional gamers, deviating from war-themed games and based around a common theme, eating! Developed in over a year and a half, Pac-Man started in early 1979 and was introduced in 1980.

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Puck-Man?

As it was initially named, Puck-Man was changed to Pac-Man for its international release to thwart prospective vandalism of arcade cabinets. Puck-Man may have been derived from the Japanese phrase “paku-paku,” which means to flap one's mouth open and closed, or from the Japanese word “pakku,” which means to nibble. However, it was renamed when licensed to Midway for distribution in North America. Namco changed the name to Pac-Man because they thought Puck-Man would be too easy to vandalize, as people could just scratch off the P and turn it into an F.

Gameplay

The objective of Pac-Man is simple: move the main character, a yellow circular creature with a voracious appetite, through a maze to eat all the pellets while avoiding four colorful ghosts—Blinky, Pinky, Inky, and Clyde. In Japanese, they are known as Fickle, Chaser, Stupid, and Ambusher. In the original version, the ghosts were floating monsters wearing cloaks. If you eat one of the four power pellets, Pac-Man can turn the tables on the spirits, allowing him to chase and eat the ghosts for extra points. The simplistic design and accessibility attracted players of all ages, and Its appeal was further boosted by its unique and memorable character designs. Today, the iconic ghosts and Pac-Man are recognized universally. The highest score achievable in the Pac-Man arcade game is 3,333,360 in 256 levels.

Official Site for Pac-Man

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  PAC-MAN is a cultural icon whose popularity has crossed the globe for more than 40 years. His journey through the maze of gaming universe is far from over! Play Games.

Merchandising and Expanding

Due to the success of the original Pac-Man, Namco recognized its marketability and produced numerous sequels and spin-offs. This greatly expanded the franchise's reach. Ms. Pac-Man was created as an unauthorized enhancement kit but became even more popular than the original. Other iterations like Pac-Man Jr., Pac-Land, and Pac-Man Championship Edition have kept the franchise alive. The success of Pac-Man transcended gaming, leaving an unforgettable mark on popular culture. Pac-Man's influence could be seen in various media, becoming integral to '80s nostalgia. In the investing and business world, the term “Pac-Man” refers to a hostile takeover defense where the target company tries to control the company that bids for it by purchasing high amounts of stock.

The Game Continues

Decades after its initial release, Pac-Man remains an integral part of gaming history. Every year, Pac-Man is celebrated by fans and the gaming community and has recently been added as an official Google Doodle. Often overlooked, Pac-Man revolutionized the gaming industry by being the first maze-chase game. Pac-Man also introduced power-ups and cutscenes to the video game genre. Due to decreased usage during the early 1980s, Pac-Man was retrofitted with additional programming to increase difficulty as the player progressed.

Lasting Legacy

The legacy of Pac-Man is the continued popularity the game holds today. Pac-Man inspired numerous other games and created a market for character gaming. Additional iconic games like Donkey Kong, Frogger, Lady Bug and even Dig Dug are all offshoots of the Pac-Man gameplay. Pac-Man was awarded records in the Guinness Worlds Records, including most successful coin-operated game and the most recognizable game character in the United States.

Buttons of the American Revolutionary War

The Continental Army and numerous state militias used several noteworthy buttons during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Most buttons from this era were made of numerous materials, made of brass, wood, or pewter. These buttons typically featured distinctive designs or symbols representing the revolutionary cause. Here are some of the notable buttons from the Revolutionary War era:

Massachusetts "Pine Tree" Button: These buttons were used by the Massachusetts Bay Colony troops and featured a pine tree design. The Pine Tree was an important symbol of resistance against British authority.

Continental Army "Great Seal" Button: Some buttons displayed the Great Seal of the United States, which features an eagle with a shield, holding an olive branch and arrows. The Continental Army used these buttons to symbolize their loyalty to the emerging nation.

Virginia State Seal Button: The Virginia state troops used buttons with the Virginia state seal, which includes the Roman goddess Virtus (representing virtue) standing over a defeated British figure.

New York "Excelsior" Button: New York troops used buttons with the word "Excelsior," which means "ever upward" in Latin. This motto represented the determination to achieve higher goals.

South Carolina "Liberty" Button: South Carolina buttons often featured the word "Liberty" and a palmetto tree or other revolutionary symbols.

Connecticut "Hartford Convention" Button: Some Connecticut regiments used buttons with a design referencing the Hartford Convention, a meeting of New England states during the War of 1812. The convention discussed their grievances and sought to limit the federal government's power.

Maryland "Sword in Hand" Button: Maryland troops used buttons featuring the state coat of arms, which included a figure holding a sword in hand, representing the readiness to defend their rights.

Buttons of the Revolutionary War are collector items and museum pieces. 

Computer Mouse

If you own a computer, you know the mouse is essential in inputting information and controlling the cursor. Douglas Engelbart and his Stanford Research Institute (SRI) team invented the computer mouse in the early 1960s.

Here's a brief history of the computer mouse:

1. Invention of the Mouse (1960s): Douglas Engelbart, a computer scientist, and his team developed the first prototype of the computer mouse in the mid-1960s. The device was a wooden shell with two perpendicular wheels that could roll on a surface and translate the movement into cursor movement on a screen.

2. Public Debut (1968): The computer mouse gained public attention during "The Mother of All Demos" in 1968, where Douglas Engelbart showcased a range of groundbreaking technologies, including the mouse, at a computer conference in San Francisco. The demonstration introduced the concept of using a mouse to interact with a graphical user interface (GUI).

3. Early Commercialization (1970s): Various computer companies began experimenting with the mouse following the demonstration. In 1970, Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) developed a more practical mouse design using a rubber ball instead of wheels, allowing smoother movement. This design became a standard for many subsequent mouse models.

4. Mouse Becomes Mainstream (1980s): The 1980s marked the era when personal computers started gaining popularity, and the mouse became a mainstream input device. Apple's Lisa computer, released in 1983, was one of the first commercially successful computers to incorporate a mouse as a standard input device. The same year, the Apple Macintosh was introduced with a mouse, further popularizing its use.

5. Optical Mouse (1990s): The traditional mechanical mouse with a rubber ball had some limitations, such as the need for regular cleaning. In the 1990s, optical mice were introduced, which used a tiny camera to track movement and eliminated the need for a ball. Optical mice offered more precise tracking and required less maintenance.

6. Wireless and Ergonomic Mice (2000s): The 2000s saw the advent of wireless mice, which relied on infrared or radio frequency technology to transmit signals to the computer, eliminating the need for a physical connection. Additionally, ergonomic designs became more prevalent, focusing on providing greater comfort and reducing wrist strain during extended computer use.

7. Advancements in Sensor Technology: In recent years, mouse technology has advanced significantly. Optical sensors have been replaced with laser sensors, which provide even greater accuracy and work on a wider range of surfaces. High polling rates and adjustable DPI (dots per inch) settings allow users to customize their mouse sensitivity to suit their preferences.

8. Evolving Form Factors: While the traditional mouse shape has remained popular, alternative form factors have emerged. Gaming mice, for example, often feature additional buttons, customizable weights, and RGB lighting. There are also trackballs, touch-sensitive surfaces, and other innovations that provide different methods of cursor control.

The computer mouse has become integral to modern computing, enabling intuitive and precise interaction with graphical user interfaces. Its invention and subsequent evolution have greatly contributed to the development of human-computer interaction.

Chewing Gum

The history of chewing gum dates back thousands of years, with evidence of ancient civilizations chewing various substances for enjoyment and health benefits. Here is a brief overview of the history of chewing gum:

Ancient Times:

- Early evidence of gum-like substances being chewed comes from ancient civilizations. The Greeks chewed mastic gum derived from the resin of the mastic tree, while the Mayans and Aztecs in Central America chewed chicle, a natural gum made from the sap of the sapodilla tree.

19th Century:

- Chewing gum, in its modern form, emerged in the 19th century. In 1848, John B. Curtis, a Maine entrepreneur, started producing and selling spruce gum derived from the resin of spruce trees. Spruce gum became famous as a chewing gum ingredient.

- In the 1860s, Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna introduced chicle to the United States as a potential rubber substitute. However, it did not find success as a rubber substitute but gained popularity as a chewing gum ingredient due to its pleasant taste and chewy texture.

- In 1871, Thomas Adams, a photographer, and inventor, was introduced to chicle by Santa Anna and started experimenting with it. He developed the first commercial chewing gum, "Adams New York Chewing Gum." Adams' company would later become one of the most significant gum manufacturers in the United States.

Late 19th to Early 20th Century:

- Chewing gum production expanded rapidly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Various flavors, including spearmint and wintergreen, were introduced to enhance the taste. Companies like Wrigley, Beech-Nut, and Dentyne became well-known names in the gum industry.

- In 1891, William Wrigley Jr., who initially sold baking powder, began offering chewing gum as a free bonus with his baking powder. The gum's popularity grew, and Wrigley shifted his focus to chewing gum production, eventually establishing the Wrigley Company, one of the leading global gum manufacturers.

- As the industry evolved, gum formulations improved. Initially, gum bases were made from natural substances like chicle, but synthetic gum bases were developed in the early 20th century, providing greater consistency and durability.

Mid-20th Century to Present:

- The mid-20th century brought advancements in gum packaging and marketing. The introduction of sugar-free and breath-freshening gums expanded the market further. Chewing gum became associated with oral hygiene and fresh breath.

- Today, various chewing gum flavors, shapes, and brands are available worldwide. Chewing gum is produced using synthetic gum bases, sweeteners, flavors, and other ingredients. Millions of people enjoy it for various reasons, including oral care, stress relief, and breath freshening.

Overall, the history of chewing gum has seen it evolve from natural resins to synthetic formulations, becoming a popular and widely consumed product enjoyed by people of all ages.

The Pocket Watch

The first pocket watches originated in the 16th century. However, they were pretty different from the pocket watches we are familiar with today. The earliest pocket watches were large and bulky, like portable clocks carried in their pockets. They were typically made in the shape of a sphere or cylinder and were powered by weights or springs.

Peter Henlein, a German locksmith and watchmaker, is often credited with inventing the pocket watch around 1504. His early designs were portable timepieces worn on a chain around the neck or carried in a pocket.

These early pocket watches had only an hour hand and didn't have a minute hand or a protective glass cover over the dial. The time was usually set by observing the sun's position or using other reference timepieces.

Over time, pocket watches became more refined and compact. They evolved into minute hands, protective covers or lids, and more intricate designs. The introduction of the balance spring in the 17th century significantly improved their accuracy and made them more practical.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, pocket watches had become highly valued and fashionable. They were often crafted with intricate engravings, made of precious metals, and adorned with gemstones. Pocket watches remained the primary timekeeping devices until the late 19th century, when wristwatches started gaining popularity.

Today, pocket watches are considered more of a vintage or luxury item, often sought after by collectors or individuals who appreciate their historical and aesthetic value. They are less commonly used for everyday timekeeping purposes, with wristwatches and smartphones being more prevalent.

First Battle of WWI

The first battle of World War I is generally considered the Battle of Liège, which took place from August 5 to August 16, 1914. Liège was a strategically important city in Belgium, and its fortifications played a crucial role in the German invasion of Belgium.

During the battle, the heavily fortified city of Liège was defended by Belgian forces against the advancing German army. The Belgian defenders put up a valiant resistance, but they were ultimately overwhelmed by the superior firepower and numbers of the German forces. The Germans utilized heavy artillery, including howitzers and siege guns, to bombard the fortifications and breach the defensive lines.

The fall of Liège marked the initial success of the German Schlieffen Plan, which aimed to defeat France by invading Belgium and swiftly encircling Paris. Although the Belgian forces could not hold off the German advance, their resistance at Liège delayed it, allowing the French and British armies more time to mobilize.

It's worth noting that some other minor engagements and skirmishes occurred before the Battle of Liège, as various nations mobilized their forces and clashed along their borders. However, Liège is often considered the first major battle of World War I.

James A. Garfield

James A. Garfield, the 20th President of the United States, served from March 4, 1881, until his untimely death on September 19, 1881. Garfield's presidential style was influenced by the political climate and norms of the time and his personal disposition. Here are some critical aspects of James Garfield's presidential style:

1. Oratory Skills: Garfield was renowned for his exceptional oratory skills. He was a captivating speaker and could command the attention of his audience with his eloquence. His speeches were often marked by a thoughtful and intellectual approach, reflecting his background as a scholar and educator.

2. Intellectual and Academic Approach: Garfield had a solid academic background, having served as a college professor and President before entering politics. This intellectual approach influenced his presidential style, as he was known for his deep thinking and analytical mindset. He was well-versed in various subjects and often brought a scholarly perspective to policy matters.

3. Political Pragmatism: Garfield was known for his pragmatic approach to politics. He was skilled at finding common ground and building coalitions, which helped him navigate the complex political landscape of his time. He sought to bridge the gap between various factions within his Republican Party and work towards bipartisan solutions when possible.

4. Commitment to Civil Service Reform: Garfield strongly advocated civil service reform, which aimed to eliminate corruption and patronage in government appointments. He believed in merit-based appointments and pushed for reforms to professionalize the civil service system. This commitment to reform was a defining aspect of his presidential style.

5. Open Accessibility: Garfield maintained an open-door policy at the White House, making himself accessible to the public and listening to their concerns. He welcomed visitors and engaged in direct conversations with citizens, demonstrating his commitment to transparency and accountability.

It's important to note that Garfield's presidency was cut short by his assassination just months into his term. As a result, his impact on the presidency and his specific presidential style may not have fully developed or been fully realized during his tenure.